Definitions by Abzugal Nammugal Enkigal
Ethnography of the Scientific Method
A qualitative approach using participant observation to study how scientists enact the scientific method in daily work. Ethnographers embed in labs to observe tacit knowledge, informal practices, and social negotiations that standard method descriptions omit. They study how instruments are built, how data are cleaned, and how disputes are resolved. This reveals the messy, human reality behind the polished image of scientific rationality. It is a core methodology of Science and Technology Studies (STS).
Ethnography of the Scientific Method Example: “The ethnography of a molecular biology lab showed that the ‘protocol’ was often a post‑hoc rationalization of what had actually been a series of trial‑and‑error adjustments. The real method was tacit, embodied, and learned through apprenticeship, not from a manual.”
Ethnography of the Scientific Method by Abzugal Nammugal Enkigal June 1, 2026
Philosophy of the Scientific Method
A branch of philosophy that examines the nature, foundations, and justification of scientific procedures. It investigates classic issues: induction, falsification, underdetermination, the role of values, and the unity of method. It asks: is there one scientific method or many? How do methods evolve? It provides normative guidance: what should scientists do to produce reliable knowledge? Unlike sociology (which describes actual practice), philosophy of the scientific method evaluates norms. It draws on logic, epistemology, and history of science.
Philosophy of the Scientific Method Example: “The philosophy of the scientific method debates whether Bayesian reasoning should replace null‑hypothesis significance testing—not just what scientists do, but what they ought to do to avoid false positives.”
Philosophy of the Scientific Method by Abzugal Nammugal Enkigal June 1, 2026
Sociology of the Scientific Method
A subfield that studies how the scientific method is actually practiced, taught, and enforced in real scientific communities. It examines the social processes behind hypothesis formation, experimental design, peer review, and replication. It asks: who gets to define what counts as “the method”? How do power dynamics, funding pressures, and career incentives shape methodological choices? It reveals that the scientific method is not a fixed, universal recipe but a flexible set of practices that are socially reproduced and contested. This field demystifies science without denying its successes.
Sociology of the Scientific Method Example: “The sociology of the scientific method showed that the ‘hypothesis‑driven’ ideal was often backfilled after serendipitous discoveries—the method was a narrative, not a recipe. What scientists actually did was more like tinkering; the textbook method came later, in the write‑up.”
Sociology of the Scientific Method by Abzugal Nammugal Enkigal June 1, 2026
Ethnography of Knowledge
A qualitative research method that studies how knowledge is created, shared, and used in specific social settings—laboratories, hospitals, courtrooms, or indigenous communities. Ethnographers of knowledge observe rituals of validation (peer review, expert testimony), the use of tools and instruments, and the everyday practices that produce “facts.” They are influenced by science and technology studies (Latour, Knorr Cetina). Unlike the sociology of knowledge (which often uses historical or macro‑level analysis), ethnography of knowledge provides fine‑grained, real‑time accounts of knowledge‑in‑action.
Ethnography of Knowledge Example: “The ethnography of knowledge in a forensic lab showed that ‘matching’ a fingerprint was not a simple yes/no—it involved negotiation, tacit skills, and knowledge of the legal consequences. Knowledge was made, not just found.”
Ethnography of Knowledge by Abzugal Nammugal Enkigal June 1, 2026
Philosophy of Knowledge
Another term for epistemology—the branch of philosophy that studies the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge. It asks: what is knowledge? How is it distinguished from mere belief? What are the criteria for justification? It explores foundationalism, coherentism, reliabilism, and the Gettier problem. It also investigates sources of knowledge: perception, reason, testimony, memory, and intuition. Philosophy of knowledge is normative: it seeks to establish standards for what counts as good knowing, not just describe how people actually know. It is essential for understanding scientific, legal, and everyday reasoning.
Philosophy of Knowledge Example: “The philosophy of knowledge asks: if a clock stopped at the correct time, and you look at it and form the true belief that it’s 3pm, do you know it’s 3pm? Gettier said no, because your justification was accidental. Knowledge requires more than true belief.”
Philosophy of Knowledge by Abzugal Nammugal Enkigal June 1, 2026
Sociology of Knowledge
A classical field, founded by Durkheim, Mannheim, and later Berger and Luckmann, that studies the social origins and social contexts of knowledge. It asks: how do social structures, institutions, and power relations shape what is considered true, real, or valid? Unlike epistemology (which asks if knowledge is justified), the sociology of knowledge investigates how knowledge is produced, distributed, and legitimated by groups. It includes studies of scientific paradigms, religious worldviews, and everyday common sense. It is often accused of relativism, but its practitioners argue that showing social influences does not invalidate truth claims—it only shows that truth is never pure.
Sociology of Knowledge Example: “The sociology of knowledge revealed that the concept of ‘objectivity’ in journalism emerged in the 1920s not as a timeless ideal but as a professional strategy to appeal to elite advertisers and avoid controversy. Knowledge is socially constructed.”
Sociology of Knowledge by Abzugal Nammugal Enkigal June 1, 2026
Critical Cognitive Sciences
An emerging field that applies critical theory to cognitive science—questioning its assumptions about universality, individualism, and reductionism. It critiques the cognitive science standard of the isolated, decontextualized, Western adult subject as the model for all human cognition. It incorporates insights from embodied, embedded, extended, and enactive cognition (4E cognition) and from cross‑cultural studies. It examines how cognitive science has been used to naturalize racism, sexism, and classism (e.g., IQ testing, evolutionary psychology). It seeks a more pluralistic, socially accountable cognitive science.
Critical Cognitive Sciences Example: “Critical Cognitive Sciences challenges the claim that ‘humans are naturally selfish’ based on lab experiments with Western undergraduates. It points out that cross‑cultural studies show wide variation—what looks like ‘human nature’ is often Western culture.”
Critical Cognitive Sciences by Abzugal Nammugal Enkigal June 1, 2026